Gynecological cancers are cancers that begin in the female reproductive organs — the cervix, uterus (womb), ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, and vulva. Grouped together, they represent a significant health concern for women, but it's important to understand that they are not one disease: each type arises from a different organ, behaves differently, carries different risk factors, and — critically — differs enormously in how easily it can be detected early.
In Singapore, uterine (endometrial) cancer is currently the most commonly diagnosed gynecological cancer among women, followed by ovarian cancer and then cervical cancer. This ranking reflects a broader pattern seen globally: cervical cancer, once the most feared gynecological cancer, has become significantly more preventable and detectable thanks to HPV vaccination and effective screening, while ovarian and endometrial cancers remain comparatively harder to catch early, since no equivalent population-wide screening test yet exists for either.
| Type | |
| Cervical Cancer | Begins in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus connecting to the vagina. Almost all cases (around 99%) are caused by persistent infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV). The most preventable gynecological cancer, given effective vaccination and screening. |
| Endometrial (Uterine) Cancer | Begins in the endometrium, the inner lining of the uterus. The most commonly diagnosed gynecological cancer in Singapore. Strongly linked to excess oestrogen exposure, and importantly, tends to cause a recognisable early symptom — abnormal bleeding — more often than ovarian cancer does. |
| Ovarian Cancer | Begins in the ovaries, the small organs on either side of the uterus that produce eggs. Often diagnosed at a later stage than cervical or endometrial cancer, since early symptoms are vague and there is no reliable population screening test. Most ovarian growths are benign, but some are malignant. |
| Fallopian Tube Cancer | A rare cancer affecting the tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus. Increasingly understood to share a common origin with a significant proportion of what has traditionally been classified as ovarian cancer, which has influenced modern prevention strategies. |
| Vaginal Cancer | A rare cancer affecting the cells lining the vaginal canal, which can spread to the bone, liver, or lungs if not caught early. |
| Vulvar Cancer | A rare cancer affecting the vulva, the outer part of the female genitalia, often related to HPV infection or chronic skin conditions affecting the area. |
| Primary Peritoneal Cancer | A rare cancer that develops in the lining of the abdominal cavity rather than in the reproductive organs directly, but behaves very similarly to, and is treated in the same way as, ovarian cancer. |
Cervical cancer occupies a unique position among gynecological cancers, because its cause is so well understood and its progression so gradual and detectable that it is now considered a largely preventable disease. Persistent infection with high-risk HPV, a very common sexually transmitted virus, causes the overwhelming majority of cases — but the progression from infection to precancerous change to actual cancer typically takes many years, leaving a wide window for intervention.
This has translated into two highly effective prevention tools working together. HPV vaccination, most effective when given before the first sexual exposure and recommended in Singapore for those aged 9 to 26, protects against the HPV types responsible for the large majority of cervical cancers. Cervical screening — a Pap smear every three years, or an HPV test every five years from age 30, per Ministry of Health guidelines, for anyone who has ever been sexually active from age 25 — catches precancerous changes years before they could become cancer, at a stage when simple outpatient treatment resolves the issue entirely.
Because early-stage cervical cancer typically causes no symptoms, screening — not waiting for symptoms — is what makes this prevention strategy work. Someone who is up to date with both vaccination and screening has dramatically lower lifetime risk than someone relying on symptom awareness alone.
Ovarian cancer is the cancer of the ovaries. The ovaries are small, almond-shaped organs located on either side of the uterus that produce eggs that are released during the menstrual cycle. There are different types of ovarian growths and tumours. Though most of these tumours are benign, some can become malignant and metastasise to the rest of the body.
Compounding this, early ovarian cancer symptoms — bloating, pelvic pain, feeling full quickly, and changes in bladder or bowel habits — are common, vague, and very similar to everyday digestive complaints, which is precisely why they are so often dismissed or attributed to something else, by both patients and, at times, initial medical assessment. The distinguishing feature is persistence: symptoms that are new, and that persist most days for more than two to three weeks, warrant assessment, even though the great majority of the time they will turn out not to be ovarian cancer.
This is also why family history and genetic risk (such as BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations or Lynch syndrome) matter more for ovarian cancer than for most other gynecological cancers — for women identified as carrying a significantly elevated genetic risk, risk-reducing strategies, including preventive surgery once childbearing is complete, are a legitimate part of the conversation with a specialist, given the absence of a reliable early screening alternative.
